A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function.^[3] There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law Drug prohibition law is prohibition-based law by which governments prohibit, except under licence, the production, supply, and possession of many, but not all, substances which are recognised as drugs, and which corresponds to international treaty commitments in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961, the Convention on Psychotropic, government regulations Regulation is "controlling human or societal behavior by rules or restrictions." Regulation can take many forms: legal restrictions promulgated by a government authority, self-regulation by an industry such as through a trade association, social regulation , co-regulation and market regulation. One can consider regulation as actions of, medicine Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Before scientific medicine, healing arts were practised in accordance with alchemical treatments and ritual practices that developed out of religious and cultural traditions, and colloquial usage.^[4]

In pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions,, a drug is "a chemical In chemistry, a chemical substance is a material with a specific chemical composition substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being."^[4] Drugs may be prescribed for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders In medicine, a chronic disease is a disease that is long-lasting or recurrent. The term chronic describes the course of the disease, or its rate of onset and development. A chronic course is distinguished from a recurrent course; recurrent diseases relapse repeatedly, with periods of remission in between. As an adjective, chronic can refer to a.^[5]

Recreational drugs Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive substance with the intention of creating or enhancing recreational experience. Such use is controversial, however, often being considered to be also drug abuse, and it is often illegal. Also, it may overlap with other uses, such as medicinal , performance enhancement, and entheogenic (spiritual) are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that coordinates the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish. It contains the majority of the nervous system and consists of the brain and the spinal cord, as well as, such as opioids An opioid is a chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. The receptors in these organ systems mediate both the beneficial effects and the side effects of opioids or hallucinogens The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. These classes of psychoactive drugs have in common that they can cause subjective changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness. Unlike other psychoactive drugs, such as.^[5] They may be used for perceived beneficial effects on perception In philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science, perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. The word "perception" comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio, and means "receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses.", consciousness Consciousness is variously defined as subjective experience, or awareness, or wakefulness, or the executive control system of the mind. It is an umbrella term that may refer to a variety of mental phenomena. Although humans realize what everyday experiences are, consciousness refuses to be defined, philosophers note :, personality Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations . The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world,, and behavior Behavior, or behaviour , refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other organisms or systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or.^[5][6] Some drugs can cause addiction The related concept of drug addiction has many different definitions. Some writers give in fact drug addiction the same meaning as substance dependence, others for example provides drug addiction a narrower meaning which excludes drugs without evidence of tolerance or withdrawal symptoms and habituation.^[6]

Drugs are usually distinguished from endogenous Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell . Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates. Their proviruses remain in the genome and are passed on to the next generation biochemicals by being introduced from outside the organism.^{[citation needed]} For example, insulin Insulin is a hormone that is central to regulate energy and glucose metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle is a hormone that is synthesized in the body; it is called a hormone when it is synthesized by the pancreas inside the body, but if it is introduced into the body from outside, it is called a drug.^{[citation needed]}

Many natural substances such as beers Beer is the world's most widely consumed and probably oldest alcoholic beverage, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley, although wheat, maize , and rice are widely used. Most beer is flavored with hops,, wines Wine is an alcoholic beverage, typically made of fermented grape juice. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast consumes the sugars found in the grapes and converts them, and some mushrooms Psilocybin mushrooms, are fungi that contain the medicinal compounds psilocybin and psilocin. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being magic mushrooms or shrooms. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Agrocybe, Conocybe, Copelandia, Galerina, Gerronema, Gymnopilus, Hypholoma, Inocybe,, blur the line between food and drugs, as when ingested they affect the functioning of both mind Mind is the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term is often used to refer, by implication, to the thought processes of reason. Mind manifests itself subjectively as a stream of consciousness and body With regard to living things, a body is the physical body of an individual. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death. The study of the workings of the body is physiology. Drugs most often contain at least one Heterocyclic compound.

Etymology

Drug is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving later into "droge-vate" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry barrels", referring to medicinal plants preserved in them.^[7]

Medication

A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness Illness is a state of poor health. Illness is sometimes considered a synonym for disease. Others maintain that fine distinctions exist. Some have described illness as the subjective perception by a patient of an objectively defined disease or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine Preventive medicine or preventive care refers to measures taken to prevent diseases, rather than curing them or treating their symptoms. The term contrasts in method with curative and palliative medicine, and in scope with public health methods (which work at the level of population health rather than individual health) that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.

Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments A government is the organization, or agency through which a political unit exercises its authority, controls and administers public policy, and directs and controls the actions of its members or subjects into three categories—over-the-counter Over-the-counter drugs are medicines that may be sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a health care professional, as compared to prescription drugs, which may only be sold to consumers possessing a valid prescription. In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to ensure that they are ingredients that are (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmacies Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. The word derives from the Greek φάρμακον , "drug, medicine" (the earliest form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek pa-ma-ko, attested in Linear B syllabic and supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-the-counter (BTC), which are dispensed by a pharmacist Pharmacists are health professionals who practice the science of pharmacy. In their traditional role, pharmacists typically take a request for medicines from a prescribing health care provider in the form of a medical prescription, evaluate the appropriateness of the prescription, dispense the medication to the patient and counsel them on the without needing a doctor's prescription, and Prescription only medicines A prescription drug is a licensed medicine that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. The term is used to distinguish it from over-the-counter drugs which can be obtained without a prescription. Different jurisdictions have different definitions of what constitutes a prescription drug (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional A health care provider or health professional is an organization or person who delivers proper health care in a systematic way professionally to any individual in need of health care services, usually a physician A physician—also known as doctor of medicine, medical doctor, or simply doctor—practices the ancient profession of medicine, which is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease or injury. This properly requires both a detailed knowledge of the academic disciplines underlying.^{[citation needed]}

In the United Kingdom, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label. ^[8]. The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country.

Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them, but they can also be derived from naturally occurring substance in plants called herbal medicine Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, and phytotherapy. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain.^{[citation needed]} Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs A generic drug is a drug which is produced and distributed without patent protection. The generic drug may still have a patent on the formulation but not on the active ingredient since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.

Drugs, both medicinal and recreational, can be administered in a number of ways:

• Orally The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva. The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth, as a liquid or solid, that is absorbed through the intestines In human anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into.
• Sublingually Sublingual, literally 'under the tongue', from Latin, refers to the pharmacological route of administration by which drugs diffuse into the blood through tissues under the tongue. Many pharmaceuticals are designed for sublingual administration, including cardiovascular drugs, steroids, barbiturates, enzymes, and increasingly, vitamins and minerals, diffusing into the blood through tissues under the tongue.
• Inhaled Inhalation begins with the onset of contraction of the diaphragm, which results in expansion of the intrapleural space and an increase in negative pressure according to Boyle's Law. These negative pressure generates airflow because of the pressure difference between the atmosphere and alveolus. Air enters, inflating the lung through either the, (breathed into the lungs), as an aerosol Technically, an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are smoke, oceanic haze, air pollution, smog and CS gas. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can. The word aerosol derives from the fact that matter "floating" in air is a or dry powder.
• Injected An injection is an infusion method of putting fluid into the body, usually with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin to a sufficient depth for the material to be forced into the body. An injection follows a parenteral route of administration; that is, administered other than through the digestive tract as a solution, suspension or emulsion either: intramuscular Intramuscular injection is the injection of a substance directly into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of several alternative methods for the administration of medications (see Route of administration). It is used for particular forms of medication that are administered in small amounts. Depending on the chemical properties of the drug, the, intravenous Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of liquid substances directly into a vein. The word intravenous simply means "within a vein". Therapies administered intravenously are often called specialty pharmaceuticals. It is commonly referred to as a drip because many systems of administration employ a drip chamber, which prevents, intraperitoneal Intraperitoneal injection or IP injection is the injection of a substance into the peritoneum . IP injection is more often applied to animals than humans. It is generally preferred when large amounts of blood replacement fluids are needed, or when low blood pressure or other problems prevent the use of a suitable blood vessel for intravenous, intraosseous Intraosseous infusion is the process of injection directly into the marrow of the bone. The needle is injected through the bone's hard cortex and into the soft marrow interior. Often the antero-medial aspect of the tibia is used as it lies just under the skin and can easily be palpated and located. Anterior aspect of the femur and the superior.
• Rectally The rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in some mammals, and the gut in others, terminating in the anus. The human rectum is about 12 cm long.[citation needed] Its caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the rectal ampulla as a suppository A suppository is a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum , vagina (vaginal suppository), or urethra (urethral suppository), where it dissolves, that is absorbed by the rectum or colon.
• Vaginally as a suppository A suppository is a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum , vagina (vaginal suppository), or urethra (urethral suppository), where it dissolves, primarily to treat vaginal infections.
• Bolus In medicine, a bolus is the administration of a medication, drug or other compound that is given to raise its concentration in blood to an effective level. The administration can be given intravenously, by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, a substance into the stomach to dissolve slowly.
• Insufflation, or snorted into the nose.
• Topically, usually as a cream or ointment. A drug administered in this manner may be given to act locally or systemically ^[9]

Many drugs can be administered in a variety of ways.

Recreation

Recreational drugs use is the use of psychoactive substances to have fun, for the experience, or to enhance an already positive experience. National laws prohibit the use of many different recreational drugs and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are heavily regulated. Many other recreational drugs on the other hand are legal, widely culturally accepted, and at the most have an age restriction on using and/or purchasing them. These include alcohol, tobacco, betel nut, and caffeine products.

Spiritual and religious use

The spiritual and religious use of drugs has been occurring since the dawn of our species. Drugs that are considered to have spiritual or religious use are called entheogens. Some religions are based completely on the use of certain drugs. Entheogens are mostly hallucinogens, being either psychedelics or deliriants, but some are also stimulants and sedatives.

Nootropics

Nootropics, also commonly referred to as "smart drugs", are drugs that are claimed to improve human cognitive abilities. Nootropics are used to improve memory, concentration, thought, mood, learning, and many other things. Some nootropics are now beginning to be used to treat certain diseases such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. They are also commonly used to regain brain function lost during aging.

Legal definition of drugs

Some governments define the term drug by law. In the United States, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act definition of "drug" includes "articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals" and "articles (other than food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or other animals."^[12] Consistent with that definition, the U.S. separately defines narcotic drugs and controlled substances, which may include non-drugs, and explicitly excludes tobacco, caffeine and alcoholic beverages.^[13]

Governmental controls

In Canada the government has moved to remove the influence of drug companies on the medical system.^{[citation needed]} “The influence that the pharmaceutical companies, the for-profits, are having on every aspect of medicine ... is so blatant now you'd have to be deaf, blind and dumb not to see it,” said Journal of the American Medical Association editor Dr. Catherine DeAngelis.^[14][15]

See also

• Drug abuse
• Drug addiction
• Drug development
• Drug injection
• Generic drug
• Illegal drug trade
• Lifestyle drug
• List of drugs is an extensive alphabetical list of drugs by name.
• Narcotics
• Pharmaceutical drug
• Placebo (origins of technical term)
• Prescription drug
• Prodrug
• Psychedelic plants
• Psychoactive drug
• Recreational drug use
• Responsible drug use
• War on Drugs

References

1. ^ Deutscher Kaffeeverband (2001-05-04). "Kaffee-Text 1/99" (in German) (PDF). http://www.kaffeeverband.de/pdf/kt1-99.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-14.
2. ^ In Germany about 118 l of beer, 20 l of wine, 4 l of sparkling wine and 6 l of distilled beverages are consumed per person per year.^{[citation needed]}
3. ^ World Health Organization. (1969). WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. Sixteenth report. (Technical report series. No. 407).Geneva:World Health Organization.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Drug." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1), Random House, Inc., via dictionary.com. Retrieved on 20 September 2007.
5. ^ ^{a b c} "Drug." The American Heritage Science Dictionary, Houghton Mifflin Company, via dictionary.com. Retrieved on 20 September 2007.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Drug." Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc., via dictionary.com. Retrieved on 20 September 2007.
7. ^ Harper, Douglas. "drug". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=drug.
8. ^ "Glossary of MHRA terms - P". MHRA. http://www.mhra.gov.uk/SearchHelp/Glossary/GlossaryP. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
9. ^ {http://www.nursingtimes.net/nursing-practice-clinical-research/the-administration-of-medicine/288560.article}
10. ^ According to the statistic of the Food and Agriculture Organization the production quantity in 2006 of coffee was 7.8 million tonnes and of tobacco was 6.7 million tonnes.
11. ^ Lingeman, Drugs from A-Z A Dictionary, Penguin ISBN 0 7139 0136 5
12. ^ "Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act" (Website.) U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved on 24 September 2007.
13. ^ "21 USC Sec. 802." (Website.) U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved on 24 September 2007.
14. ^ "Med schools, journals fight big pharma's sway" (Website.) MSNBC. Retrieved on 11 November 2009
15. ^ "Medical schools, journals start to fight drug industry influence" (Website.) USA Today. Retrieved on 11 November 2009

External links

• DrugBank, a database of 4800 drugs and 2500 protein drug targets
• The Cult of Pharmacology: How America Became the World's Most Troubled Drug Culture by Richard DeGrandpre, Duke University Press, 2006.
• 'don't drug + drive' German web-site providing information on the influence of recreational drugs in driving.

Categories: Drugs

See Also:

• Cannabis (Drug): Encyclopedia

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