Amphipleis Raf. Blenocoes Raf. Dittostigma Phil. Eucapnia Raf. Langsdorfia Raf. Lehmannia Spreng. Perieteris Raf. Polydiclis (G.Don) Miers Sairanthus G.Don Siphaulax Raf. Tabacum Gilib. Tabacus Moench Waddingtonia Phil.[2]

Nicotiana (pronounced /ˌnɪkɵʃiˈeɪnə/)[3] is a genus In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank (a taxon) used in the classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender", cognate with Greek: γένος – genos, "race, stock, kin" of herbs A herbaceous plant is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground. A herbaceous plant may be annual, biennial or perennial and shrubs A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs of the nightshade Solanum, the nightshades, horsenettles and relatives, is a large and diverse genus of annual and perennial plants. They grow as forbs, vines, subshrubs, shrubs, and small trees, and often have attractive fruit and flowers. Many formerly independent genera like Lycopersicon or Cyphomandra are included in Solanum as subgenera or sections today. Thus, family What does and does not belong to each family is determined by a taxonomist. Similarly for the question if a particular family should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing a family (Solanaceae Solanaceae is a family of flowering plants that contains a number of important agricultural crops as well as many toxic plants. The name of the family comes from the Latin Solanum "the nightshade plant", but the further etymology of that word is unclear. Most likely, the name comes from the perceived resemblance that some of the flowers) indigenous to North North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast and South America South America is the southern continent of America, situated in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest, Australia For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of the roughly 250 language groups. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north and discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by the British, south west Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With a billion people (as of 2009, see table) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.72% of the world's human population and the South Pacific Oceania is a geographical, and often geopolitical, region consisting of numerous lands—mostly islands in the Pacific Ocean and vicinity. The term "Oceania" was coined in 1831 by French explorer Dumont d'Urville.[dubious – discuss] The term is also sometimes used to denote a continent comprising Australia Continent and proximate. Various Nicotiana species In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as based on similarity of DNA or, commonly referred to as tobacco plants, are cultivated and grown to produce tobacco Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, it is used in some medicines. It is most commonly used as a recreational drug, and is a valuable cash crop for countries such as Cuba, China and United States. Of all Nicotiana species, Cultivated Tobacco (N. tabacum Nicotiana tabacum, or cultivated tobacco, is a perennial herbaceous plant. It is found only in cultivation, where it is the most commonly grown of all plants in the Nicotiana genus, and its leaves are commercially grown in many countries to be processed into tobacco. It grows to heights between 1 to 2 metres. Research is ongoing into its ancestry) is the most widely planted and is grown worldwide for production of tobacco leaf for cigarettes A cigarette is a small roll of finely-cut tobacco leaves wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered and include reconstituted tobacco and other additives. The genus is named in honor of Jean Nicot Born in Nîmes, in the south of France, he was French ambassador in Lisbon, Portugal from 1559 to 1561, who in 1561 was the first to present tobacco to the French royal court. Nicotiana germination is usually 2–5 days in 80 °F (27 °C) weather.

Contents

Etymology

The word nicotiana (as well as nicotine Nicotine is an alkaloid found in the nightshade family of plants that constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of dry weight of tobacco, with biosynthesis taking place in the roots and accumulation occurring in the leaves. It functions as an antiherbivore chemical with particular specificity to insects; therefore nicotine was widely used as an) was named in honor of Jean Nicot Born in Nîmes, in the south of France, he was French ambassador in Lisbon, Portugal from 1559 to 1561, French France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, ambassador An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat that represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization to Portugal Portugal /ˈpɔɹtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, Mirandese: Pertual), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa; Mirandese: República Pertuesa), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and, who in 1559 sent it as a medicine to the court of Catherine de' Medici Catherine de' Medici was born in Florence, Italy, as Caterina Maria Romula di Lorenzo de' Medici. Both of her parents, Lorenzo II de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, and Madeleine de La Tour d'Auvergne, Countess of Boulogne, died within weeks of her birth. In 1533, at the age of fourteen, Caterina married Henry, second son of King Francis I of France and.[4]

Cultivation

Tobacco plantation Main article: Cultivation of tobacco

It is most commonly smoked Tobacco smoking is the practice where tobacco is burned and the vapors either tasted or inhaled. The practice began as early as 5000–3000 BC. Many civilizations burnt incense during religious rituals, which was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool. Tobacco was introduced to the Old World in the late 1500s where it followed common trade in the form of cigarettes A cigarette is a small roll of finely-cut tobacco leaves wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered and include reconstituted tobacco and other additives or cigars A cigar is a tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth. Cigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Philippines, and the Eastern United States. Tobacco is native to both American continents and was used by native cultures by around 3000 BC.[citation needed] Employed as an anthelmintic Anthelmintics or antihelminthics are drugs that expel parasitic worms from the body, by either stunning or killing them. They may also be called vermifuges (stunning) or vermicides (killing),[5] it has been smoked, in one form or another, since about 3000 BC.[citation needed] Tobacco has a long history of ceremonial use in Native American The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North, Central, and South America, their descendants, and many ethnic groups who identify with those peoples. They are often also referred to as Native Americans, Aboriginals, First Nations , Amerigine[dubious – discuss], and by Christopher Columbus' geographical and cultures. It has played an important role in the political, economic, and cultural history of the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language.

Tobacco plants have been grown and/or harvested by local peoples for a long time. The Takelma for example use N. bigelovii, and tobacco is very important to the Aztecs The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the late post-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology, who consider it one of the sacred herbs of Xochipilli, the "Flower Prince" (also known as Macuilxochitl, "Five Flowers"), a deity of agriculture Agriculture is the production of food and goods through farming. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as and especially entheogenic An entheogen , in the strict sense, is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic or spiritual context. Historically, entheogens were mostly derived from plant sources and have been used in a variety of traditional religious contexts. Most entheogens do not produce drug dependency. With the advent of organic chemistry, there now exist plants. Indeed, the origins of Cultivated Tobacco (N. tabacum Nicotiana tabacum, or cultivated tobacco, is a perennial herbaceous plant. It is found only in cultivation, where it is the most commonly grown of all plants in the Nicotiana genus, and its leaves are commercially grown in many countries to be processed into tobacco. It grows to heights between 1 to 2 metres. Research is ongoing into its ancestry) are obscure; it is not known from the wild and appears to be a hybrid In biology and specifically genetics, hybrid has several meanings, all referring to the offspring of sexual reproduction between Woodland Tobacco (N. sylvestris), N. tomentosiformis and another species (perhaps N. otophora), deliberately selected by humans a long time ago.[6]

In modern tobacco farming, Nicotiana seeds A seed ( /ˈsiːd/ ) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed are scattered onto the surface of the soil Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics, as their germination Germination is the process in which a plant or fungus emerges from a seed or spore and begins growth. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. However the growth of a sporeling from a spore, for example the growth of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination. In a more is activated by light, then covered in cold frames. In the Colony of Virginia The Colony of Virginia was the English colony in British America that existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution (as a British colony after 1707). The name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. After the English Civil War in the mid 17th century,, seedbeds were fertilized with wood ash or animal manure Manure is organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life that comprises the soil food web (frequently powdered horse The horse is a hooved (ungulate) mammal, a subspecies of the family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Although manure). Coyote Tobacco (N. attenuata) of the western U.S. requires burned wood to germinate.[7] Seedbeds were then covered with branches to protect the young plants from frost damage. These plants were left to grow until around April. Today, in the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, unlike other countries, Nicotiana is often fertilized with the mineral apatite Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually referring to hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite, chlorapatite and bromapatite, named for high concentrations of OH−, F−, Cl− or Br−ions, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of the four most common endmembers is written as Ca106(OH, F, Cl, Br)2, and the crystal unit cell to partially starve the plant for nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere, which changes the taste of the tobacco.

After the plants have reached a certain height, they are transplanted into fields. This was originally done by making a relatively large hole in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, then placing the small plant in the hole. Various mechanical tobacco planters were invented throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries to automate this process, making a hole, fertilizing it, and guiding a plant into the hole with one motion.

Many species of Nicotiana are also grown as ornamental plants Ornamental plants or garden plants are typically grown in the flower garden or as house plants. Most commonly they are grown for the display of their flowers. Other common ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. In some cases, unusual features may be considered ornamental, such as the prominent and rather vicious thorns of. They are popular vespertines, their sweet-smelling flowers opening in the evening to be visited by hawkmoths and other pollinators A pollinator is the biotic agent that moves pollen from the male anthers of a flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish fertilization or syngamy of the female gamete in the ovule of the flower by the male gamete from the pollen grain. Though the terms are sometimes confused, a pollinator is different from a pollenizer, which is a plant. Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. In particular, model organisms are widely used to explore potential causes and treatments for human disease in genetics Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of. Tobacco BY-2 cells, derived from N. tabacum cultivar A cultivar is a cultivated variety of a plant that has been deliberately selected for specific desirable characteristics . When propagated correctly, the plants of a particular cultivar retain their special characteristics 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology Cell biology is an academic discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled. Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living things in engineering, technology, medicine, and other useful applications. Modern use similar term includes genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms according to.

Ecology

Tobacco mosaic virus Tobacco mosaic virus is an RNA virus that infects plants, especially tobacco and other members of the family Solanaceae. The infection causes characteristic patterns (mottling and discoloration) on the leaves (hence the name). TMV was the first virus to be discovered. Although it was known from the late 19th century that an infectious disease was (electron micrograph) Female Manduca sexta Further information: List of tobacco diseases

Despite containing enough nicotine and/or other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores,[8] a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species and therefore some tobacco plants (chiefly Tree Tobacco, N. glauca) have become established as invasive species in some places.

In the nineteenth century, young tobacco plantings came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris and/or Epitrix pubescens), causing destruction of half the United States tobacco crop in 1876. In the years afterward, many experiments were attempted and discussed to control the flea beetle. By 1880 it was discovered that replacing the branches with a frame covered by thin fabric would effectively protect plants from the beetle. This practice spread until it became ubiquitous in the 1890s.

Lepidoptera whose caterpillars feed on Nicotiana include:

These are mainly Noctuidae and some Sphingidae.

Selected species

Nicotiana alata Nicotiana langsdorffii Nicotiana obtusifolia Nicotiana × sanderae ornamental cultivar

Hybrids

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "Genus Nicotiana". Taxonomy. UniProt. http://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/4085. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
  2. ^ "Nicotiana L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2006-04-13. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?8235. Retrieved 2010-06-03.
  3. ^ Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607
  4. ^ http://www.tc.columbia.edu/centers/cifas/drugsandsociety/background/chronologydruguse.html Heading: 1550-1575 Tobacco, Europe.
  5. ^ The Merck Index, 12th Ed., page 1119: entry 6611 Nicotine, Merck & Co. 1996
  6. ^ Ren & Timko (2001)
  7. ^ Baldwin, Ian T. (2001-12). "An Ecologically Motivated Analysis of Plant-Herbivore Interactions in Native Tobacco". Plant Physiol 127 (4): 1449–1458. doi:10.1104/pp.010762. PMID 11743088. PMC 1540177. http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/10.1104/pp.010762. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
  8. ^ Panter et al. (1990)
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u ITIS (1999)
  10. ^ "IUCN Red List (version 2009.1) - Nicotiana africana". www.iucnredlist.org. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/34937/0/full. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
  11. ^ "Subordinate Taxa of Nicotiana L.". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden. http://tropicos.org/NameSubordinateTaxa.aspx?nameid=40028229. Retrieved 2009-11-28.

Bibliography

External links

Categories: Nicotiana | Tobacco | Entheogens

 

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Which of the following is classified as a psychoactive plant?
Q. A) Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) B) Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) C) Datura spp. (Jimson weed) D) Belladonna (Atropa belladonna) E) all are psychoactive
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A. E) All of them
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